By Shannon M. Marheine

– Executive Summary –

Music can be a powerful tool in motivating individuals to align with groups or participate in social movements that resonate with their ideological convictions. Yet for some individuals grappling with uncertainty about their beliefs, ideological music mashups may provide a sense of structure or urgency to their exploration of self.^[1] Recognizing the impact music can have on individuals to foster social inclusion and purpose, extremists can use music to promote direct action and violence in lone offender attacks.^[2] In this way, music provides a medium for the convergence of multiple ideological elements presented through familiar or mainstream music combined with extremist images, videos, and music to seduce impressionable individuals toward extremism, ultimately culminating in singular acts of violence in support of a collective campaign or cause.^[3]

To deepen the understanding of music’s role in fostering violence within the context of domestic terrorism, this thesis examines the intersection of mainstream cultural influences and extremist ideological themes within music; more specifically, the convergence of traditional and fringe ideological elements in music. Music is an access point for individuals and groups to break down real or imagined social barriers.^[4] It provides an active daydream that can conjure the most passionate of human desires: a sexual embrace, steadfast spiritual love, or the light of celebration and inclusion. Likewise, music can evoke a savage and unbridled rage that can become a direct path to violence in the nameofa particular ideology.^[5]

 Extremist events in the United States are increasingly attributed to perpetrators who demonstrate a combination of mixed, unclear, and unstable (MUU) or overlapping ideologies. As such, a recurring pattern in contemporary American domestic terrorism involves the integration of complementary or similar ideological aspects to widen support for a specific movement or cause.^[6] This ideological overlap of elements is fostering nontraditional pathways for recruitment and radicalization through concepts like “fringe fluidity.”^[7] Moreover, the fringe and MUU phenomena are linked to the topic of decentralization, and the use of individual actors to carry out direct action and violence in an “enemy of my enemy” type of support for a particular hate group or extremist campaign is a primary component of the ideological overlap concern.

In 2021, domestic violent extremism (DVE) represented the most lethal and enduring terrorism-related threat to the United States, according to the Secretary of Homeland Security, thus necessitating its designation as a paramount national concern.^[8] DVE activities in the United States perpetrated by self-proclaimed members of a specific extremist cause or campaign from the broad political associations of the Right and the Left were identified.^[9] For this study, two primary extremist clusters (groups) were categorized from each spectrum and studied for concerning elements of convergence in some of their base ideological framework. From the Right arena, the study looked specifically at white supremacist extremism, and from the Left arena, the study looked specifically at the loosely identified anti-fascist (antifa) extremism. While it may seem like extremists belonging to white supremacy groups and members of anti-fascist campaigns have little in common on the surface, a closer examination revealed that certain fundamental aspects of their ideologies shared significant common ground, and both sides threaten the accumulation of recruits in the “middle” via the fringe fluidity and MUU phenomena.^[10]

Of particular interest to this study is the ideological overlap in three core areas. The first element, anti-government extremism,isthe belief that the U.S. government is not only flawed, but intentionally focused on suppressing a segment of Americans. The second element, anti-authority extremism, is an ardent disdain for authority figures with an emphasis on law enforcement officials as agents or conspirators of the government’s suppression efforts. The third and perhaps most distressing element, violent extremism, is the belief that the group’s particular cause or campaign can only be implemented through violence.^[11] Overlapping ideologies allow for the potential of a wider audience for member recruitment and social support. Moreover, as these groups gain notoriety through extremist activities, they continue to seduce individuals with MUU or fringe beliefs with singular elements of ideological overlap.^[12]

Extremists represent a faction within society that advocates for radical actions beyond conventional norms, eschewing diplomatic approaches for more aggressive tactics. Nowhere is this sentiment more pronounced than in the current political and social landscape of the United States.^[13] The fringe component of the domestic extremism equation is still a largely unknown variable, but the potential for extremist activities in response to the continued social-political strife in America continues to be a paramount threat for homeland security officials. Whether the fringe component leans to the Left or the Right, it is evident that all seek to encourage the use of violence to achieve their collective goal in a frighteningly misguided sense of correcting perceived wrongs in society. An example of the convergence of these elements is demonstrated in a 2022 study conducted by the Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS), which examined 1,040 terrorist attacks and plots within the United States from January 1, 1994, to December 31, 2021.^[14] The study underscores the escalating trend of U.S. law enforcement agencies becoming targets for domestic terrorists across various ideological spectrums.

This thesis investigates the utilization of extremist music for recruitment and radicalization in America throughout the 21st century, with a focused examination of the principal extremist factions of both the polarized Left and Right. The findings herein underscore the potential convergence of ideologies of these factions’ fringe elements. Additionally, the thesis highlights the vulnerability of lone individuals seeking inclusion, illustrating how they can be drawn into extremist causes or campaigns. Furthermore, it analyzes instances of overt and covert ideological convergence within the music aimed at inciting violence against a common adversary, the U.S. government, and specifically its agents of authority, law enforcement officials.

The phenomenon of ideological mashups holds significant potential for implications that extend beyond mere entertainment, penetrating the intricate fabric of our societal values and influencing the impressionable minds of isolated Americans. With Americans streaming around 4.1 trillion songs in 2023, up from 3.4 trillion streams in 2022, the phenomenon is concerning.^[15] As fringe elements become increasingly integrated into mainstream music, the importance of examining ideological fusion and its underlying principles in popular music cannot be overstated. It prompts essential discussions about their profound impact on young listeners’ attitudes and beliefs. As these musical compositions blur the boundaries between artistic expression and extremism, it becomes imperative to dissect their messaging and assess their influence on vulnerable audiences.

Music is a reflection of our lives and how we interact with one another; it can impact our bond with others, change our inner selves, and, if targeted, motivate violent behavior. As such, this thesis recommends further research to move toward a coordinated approach to understanding the use of music in extremist recruitment and radicalization.^[16] Suggested steps moving forward include the continued study of the creation and use of digital music mashups, enhanced media literacy efforts for young listeners, and responsible content creation for streaming platforms. Moreover, this study suggests vigilant monitoring of digital music sharing platforms and increased efforts to counteract the dissemination of harmful ideologies through music.

---

[1] See for example: One reason individuals are easy targets for recruitment and radicalization from hate groups is they have base desire to belong to something bigger than themselves—a connection. Christopher J. Lennings et al., “Grooming for Terror: The Internet and Young People,” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 17, no. 3 (2010): 424–37, https://doi.org/10.1080/13218710903566979.

[2] James B. Briggs, “A Study of Musicology and Social Discourse in Mid-Twentieth-Century America” (master’s thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, 2020), http://hdl.handle.net/10945/66596.

[3] Overlapping ideologies is the combining of traditional and/or fringe ideological beliefs. Musical mashup is the compilation of two or more musical components (in melody and or lyrics). Erin Miller, Elizabeth A. Yates, and Sheehan Kane, “Check All That Apply: Challenges in Tracking Ideological Movements That Motivate Right-Wing Terrorism,” in Right-Wing Extremism in Canada and the United States, ed. Barbara Perry, Jeff Gruenewald, and Ryan Scrivens (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2022), 119–51, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99804-2_6; John O’Kane, “Insurrection, or Menacing Mashup of Misrecognition?,” AMASS 25, no. 3 (2021): 12–17.

[4] Patrick E. Savage et al., “Music as a Coevolved System for Social Bonding,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 44 (2021): 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X20000333; Amber B. Clark and Adam J Lonsdale, “Music Preference, Social Identity, and Collective Self-Esteem,” Psychology of Music 51, no. 4 (July 2023): 1119–31, https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356221126202.

[5] Stephanie Pieschl and Simon Fegers, “Violent Lyrics = Aggressive Listeners? Effects of Song Lyrics and Tempo on Cognition, Affect, and Self-Reported Arousal,” Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications 28, no. 1 (2016): 32–41, https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000144; Meng-Jinn Chen et al., “Music, Substance Use, and Aggression,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 67, no. 3 (May 2006): 373–81, https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2006.67.373.

[6] Lewys Brace, Stephane J. Baele, and Debbie Ging, “Where Do ‘Mixed, Unclear, and Unstable’ Ideologies Come from? A Data-Driven Answer Centred on the Incelosphere,” Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 2023, 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2023.2226667.

[7] Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Madeleine Blackman, “Fluidity of the Fringes: Prior Extremist Involvement as a Radicalization Pathway,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 45, no. 7 (2022): 555–78, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1531545; Kyler Ong, “Ideological Convergence in the Extreme Right,” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 12, no. 5 (2020): 1–7, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26954256.

[8] According to the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Office of Intelligence & Analysis (I&A), a domestic violent extremist is “an individual based and operating primarily within the U.S. or its territories without direction or inspiration from a foreign terrorist group or other foreign power, who seeks to further political or social goals wholly or in part through unlawful acts of force or violence.” “Domestic Terrorism: Definitions, Terminology, and Methodology,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, November 2020, https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/fbi-dhs-domestic-terrorism-definitions-terminology-methodology.pdf; Alejandro N. Mayorkas, “A Message from Secretary Mayorkas on Preventing Domestic Violent Extremism within DHS” (Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, April 26, 2021), https://www.dhs.gov/publication/message-secretary-mayorkas-preventing-domestic-violent-extremism-within-dhs.

[9] Tore Bjørgo and Kurt Braddock, “Anti-Government Extremism: A New Threat?,” Perspectives on Terrorism 16, no. 6 (2022): 2–8, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27185087; Daniel L. Byman, “Countering Organized Violence in the United States,” Brookings, May 16, 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/countering-organized-violence-in-the-united-states/.

[10] Brace, Baele, and Ging, “Where Do ‘Mixed, Unclear, and Unstable’ Ideologies Come From?”; Joint Counterterrorism Assessment Team, “Mixing Ideologies Requires Multipronged Terrorism Prevention Efforts” (Washington, DC: National Counterterrorism Center, May 25, 2023), https://www.dni.gov/files/NCTC/documents/jcat/firstresponderstoolbox/141S_-_First_Responders_Toolbox_-_Mixing_Ideologies_Requires_Multipronged_Terrorism_Prevention_Efforts.pdf.

[11] Triana McNeil, Domestic Terrorism: Further Actions Needed to Strengthen FBI and DHS Collaboration to Counter Threats, GAO-23-104720 (Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office, 2023), https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-104720.

[12] Phillando A Peterson K., “Domestic Terrorism in the United States: Ideology, Radicalization, Mobilization, and the Law” (master’s thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 2019); Simon Varaine, “Revisiting the Economics and Terrorism Nexus: Collective Deprivation, Ideology and Domestic Radicalization in the US (1948–2016),” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 36 (2020): 667–99, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09422-z.

[13] Noah Chess, “Rising Domestic Terrorism in the U.S.: Examining the Growth in Violent Extremism from Far-Left, Far-Right, and Religious Extremist Groups to Identify Their Ideologies, Recruitment Methods, and Specific Threats to Homeland Security,” (master’s thesis, San Diego State University, 2023), 48–56, ProQuest.

[14] Catrina Doxsee et al., “Pushed to Extremes: Domestic Terrorism amid Polarization and Protest,” May 17, 2022, https://www.csis.org/analysis/pushed-extremes-domestic-terrorism-amid-polarization-and-protest.

[15] Fabio Duarte, “Music Streaming Services Stats (2024),” Exploding Topics, February 1, 2024, https://explodingtopics.com/blog/music-streaming-stats.

[16] Jonathan Pieslak, Radicalism and Music: An Introduction to the Music Cultures of al-Qa’ida, Racist Skinheads, Christian-Affiliated Radicals, and Eco-Animal Rights Militants (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2015).